# Create a variable by assignment.  No separate declaration needed.
x = 5

# What's the value of x now?
x

# Change the value of x a few times; it can change types at any time
x = 10 # an integer
x = 3.25 # a float
x = True # a boolean
x = None # None (the null value)
x = "hello" # a string

# Some integers
1234
1_000_000 # one million (_ is a separator that is ignored, like a comma)
0x1e # hexadecimal
0b1001 # binary
# only the last value in a cell appears in the output, so you should see 9 = 0b1001 below

# Some floats
0.01
-1.3
3e6 # three million.  "e" is for exponent, means 3 * 10**6

# The only possible values of a boolean.  Note capitalization
True
False # Output will only show this one; it's the last value in this cell

# The only value of type `nonetype` is None.  It is used as a "null", a signal of the absence of something.
# Displaying a None in the REPL doesn't display anything at all, so this cell has no output
None

# Some strings.  Can use " or ' for single-line strings, or """ or ''' for multi-line strings
"2021"  # This isn't a number!  It is in quotes, so it is a string
"It was the best of times"
'It was the worst of times'
"""It was time for MCS 275 lecture
but I didn't zoom installed on my
laptop."""

# addition
2+2

# multiplication
7*8

# division yields a float, even if the result is an integer
6/2

# exponentiation is **, and not ^ which is used for this in some other languages
2**5

10 / 2 / 5  # The leftmost division is done first, so this becomes (10/2) / 5 which is 1

# modulus (remainder upon division) is %
1271845 % 7  # This number is one more than a multiple of 7

# Join two strings
"hello" + " world"

# Repeat a string many times using multiplication
"n" + ( "o"*30 )

# Compare numbers with <, >, =, <=, >=
1 < 5

27 >= 27

27 > 27

# Equality is tested with ==
8 == 9

# Strings compare by dictionary order, with < meaning earlier in dictionary
"aardvark" < "abalone"

"skunk" < "shark"

# Capital letters come before lower case letters in this dictionary
"Zebra" < "airplane"

# Convert a string to an integer
int("1500")

# Convert string to integer, using a base other than 10
int("1001",2) # base 2 = binary, so we get 0b1001 = 9

# Convert anything to a string with str()
# Not often needed.  But for example you could use this to 
# get the digits of an integer, since a string lets you
# access individual characters
str(239.1)

str(False)

str([2,7,5])  # Lists are formatted with spaces after the commas

s = "Hello"
# Convert to upper case (returns the converted value, doesn't change s)
s.upper()

# Convert to lower case
s.lower()

# Test for prefix
s.startswith("He")

# Test for suffix
s.endswith("llo")

# "string in string" tests for the presence of a substring
"car" in "racecar"

"aaa" in "banana"

# String formatting: .format(value, value, ...) formats the values and puts them into the string where
# there are placeholders

# Basic usage
"I wish I had a pet {} so they could eat {} {}".format("mouse",16,"seeds")

# Placeholders can have numbers to indicate which of the arguments they should take
# They are 0-based indices of the list of arguments to .format(...)
"First you put on your {1}, and THEN you put on your {0}".format("shoes","socks")

# Floating point placeholders can have a formatting directive in the format :X.Yf
# where X,Y are integers. The number will be formatted to have a width of at least X characters,
# Y of them after the decimal point.  X is optional.
"I am {:3.2f} percent sure of it".format(75.12345)

"Rounding to tenths we find that pi is approximately {:.1f}".format(3.14159265359)

# Display a message in the terminal
print("Hello world")
# Note: This statement doesn't return a value!

# Can print multiple values.  They'll be separated by spaces, by default
print("What if I told you that MCS",275,"was fun?")
# print() can handle every built-in type
print("Here is a list:",[5,4,3,1])

# print() puts a newline at the end by default
# This can be disabled
print("ba",end="")   # no newline after this one
print("nana")

# Lists are written with square brackets and commas
[2,7,5]

# Elements of a list can have different types.
# Let's set up an example to work with in the next few cells.
L = [ 1, "fish", 2, "fish", False, True, False, None, 5.25, "last"]

# Retrieve an element of a list using brackets with 0-based index.
L[0]  # first element

L[3]  # fourth element

# Negative index means count from the end of the list, with -1 meaning last element
L[-1]

# len(listname) gives the length of the list `listname`
len(L)

# Let's set up a sample list to work with (same one used in a previous section)
L = [ 1, "fish", 2, "fish", False, True, False, None, 5.25, "last"]

# Select a contiguous sublist using [start_idx:end_idx]
# Includes the element at start_idx, but not end_idx
# This is an example of a "slice"
L[2:5]  # Has 5-2 = 3 elements

# Slices that extend past the end of the list don't produce an error
L[5:100000]  # Elements 5 to 99999 requested, but we get 5 to 9

# Slices start at the beginning if the start index is missing
L[:3] # first three elements

# Slices end at the end if the end index is missing
L[3:] # everything but the first three elements

# You can specify that a slice should use a step size other than 1
L[::2]  # Every other element, starting at index 0

L[1::2]  # Every other element, starting at index 1

# Convert a string to a list to get a list of its characters
list("abcdef")

# Let's set up a sample list to work with (same one used in a previous section)
L = [ 1, "fish", 2, "fish", False, True, False, None, 5.25, "last"]

# Checking whether an item is an element of a list
5.25 in L

2 in L

"ball" in L

# set up a list to work with
courses_taken = [ 260, 275 ]
# Add an element at the end with append
courses_taken.append(320) # doesn't return anything, it just modifies the list

# What's in the list now?
courses_taken

# An element of a list can be replaced using item assignment
courses_taken[0] = 261  # change first element to 261

courses_taken # Now, the first element should be 261

# But you can't add new elements to the list with item assignment
# Only existing elements can be modified
courses_taken[3] = 501  # no item 3 right now, so this gives an error.

# .pop() will remove and return the last element of a list
courses_taken.pop()

# Notice that 320 is no longer in the list
courses_taken

# .index(elt) will find elt and return its position
# or raise an exception if it is not found
courses_taken.index(275)  # should return 1 since courses_taken[1] is 275

# .insert(where,what) adds an element at a specific position
# Afterward, listname[where] will be equal to `what`
# Existing items in the list remain, but move to higher indices
# to make room (if needed).
courses_taken.insert(1,401) # Put 401 at index 1, i.e. make it the second element.
courses_taken # Show the resulting list

# Sort a list in place
courses_taken.sort() # note lack of any return value

# But after the previous command, the list is now sorted
courses_taken

# Strings also support integer indices and slices to get characters or substrings
"banana"[0]

"banana"[2:4]

"banana"[1::2]  # every other letter

# Reverse a string
"banana"[::-1]

# Similar to lists, you can get the total number of characters in a string with len(...)
len("If you have a garden and a library, you have everything you need.")

# Create a dictionary and bind the name "d" to it
d = { "department": "MSCS", "building": 631, "phd_granting": True}

# Access the value associated with a key
d["department"]

# Add a new key-value pair to the dictionary
d["college"] = "LAS"

# Test if a **key** is present
"building" in d # True because "building" is a key of this dict

# You can't use `in` to directly check if a value is present
631 in d  # False because 631 is not a key of this dict

if 5 > 7:
    print("5 is larger")
else:
    print("7 is larger")

x = 15 # adjust this number and run the code to test other branches
if x % 6 == 0: 
    print(x,"is divisible by 6")
elif x % 3 == 0:
    print(x,"is divixible by 3, but is NOT divisible by 6")
else:
    print(x,"is not divisible by 3 (and so not by 6 either)")

s = "carpeting"  # change this word and run the code to test conditional
if "pet" in s:
    print(s,"contains pet as a substring")
    print("In fact, it appears at index",s.find("pet"))

# Find a power of 2 that has 7 as a digit
n = 1
while "7" not in str(2**n):
    n = n + 1
# The next line is not indented, so it only runs when the loop is finished
print("Found it: The number 2**{} = {} has 7 as a digit".format(n,2**n))

# Take each element of a list and print it
available_drinks = ["coffee","tea","juice"]
for drink in available_drinks:
    print("Available drink:",drink)

# Take each key of a dictionary and do something with it
dept_data = { "department": "MSCS", "building": 631, "phd_granting": True}
for field in dept_data:
    print("{} = {}".format(field,dept_data[field]))

# Dictionaries support retrieving key,value pairs
# which can be unpacked into two variables in a loop
for field,value in dept_data.items():
    print("{} = {}".format(field,value))

# Break out of a loop early with `break`
L = [ 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 ]
for x in L:
    if "5" in str(x):
        # if we hit an integer containing digit 5, we stop the loop
        break
    print(x)
print("The loop ended, so the next element of L must have contained the digit 5")

# Open a new file (delete if it exists already) for writing
output_file = open("output.txt","wt") # wt = write, text (not binary) file
# Write some text to it.  Note need to add our own newlines.
output_file.write("Hello.\n")
output_file.write("This is a text file.\n")
output_file.write("That is all.\n")
# Close the file (writes may not actually happen until now)
output_file.close()

# Open the file created above, for reading
input_file = open("output.txt","rt")
# Get everything in the file as a single string
s = input_file.read()
input_file.close()

# Now print what we read from the file
print(s)

# Process lines of that file one by one
input_file = open("output.txt","rt")

for line in input_file:
    print("I just read one more line from the file.  The contents are:")
    print(line,end="")  # line will already have a newline, most likely
    print("This line of the file has {} characters\n".format(len(line)))

input_file.close()

# Reading is a one-time operation.  Trying to read file contents twice
# gives no data the second time.
input_file = open("output.txt","rt")
s1 = input_file.read()  # Read everything, after which we're at the end of the file
s2 = input_file.read()  # Reads nothing, already at the end of the file
input_file.close()

print("The first time I read from the file I got:")
print(s1)
print("-"*70)
print("The second time I read from the file I got:")
print(s2)  # will print nothing, because we read nothing
print("(Expect nothing shown above, since we're already at the end of this file.)")

# In Python, any text after the symbol # on a line is ignored.  This is a comment.
# There is no multi-line comment syntax in Python; you just put # in front of each.

x = 1  # You can also put comments on the same line as code

# And # it is ok # for comments to contain # any number of # characters.

# EXAMPLE OF EXCESSIVE COMMENTS - they describe code that is already clear
for i in range(10):   # i from 0 to 9
    x = i*i  # compute the square of i and store in x
    print("Square:",x)  # display the square just computed

# EXAMPLE OF INSUFFICIENT COMMENTS
import math

L = []
for i in range(2,30):
    L.append(i)
    for j in range(2,math.floor(math.sqrt(i))+1):
        if i % j == 0:
            L.pop()
            break
print(L)

# FIXING THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE
"""Find the primes up to 29 by the naive (inefficient) method"""
import math # For sqrt

L = [] # to hold the primes
for i in range(2,30):
    L.append(i) # Add i to the list of primes for now; will remove later if composite
    # If i is composite, then one of its divisors is less than or equal to the
    # square root of i, so we need only check up to that point for divisors.
    for j in range(2,math.floor(math.sqrt(i))+1):
        if i % j == 0:
            # Now we know i is composite (divisible by j), so remove it from L and
            # exit the inner loop, moving on to the next prime candidate.
            L.pop()
            break
print(L)

# Suppose this cell contains the full contents of hello.py
# Print a greeting    <--- this describes the file, but it isn't a docstring!  Not a string literal
# "Print a greeting"  <--- also not a docstring.  It's a comment, not a string literal
"""Greet the user"""   # <--- THIS IS A DOCSTRING
"""by saying hello"""  # BAD! Not a docstring, as it isn't the first statement.
                       #      It should be a commend instead

# Comment line in the middle of the file.  That's fine.


print("Hello user!")

# This example involves functions.  See the next section for details about functions.

def f(x):
    """Compute the 'smoothstep' polynomial at x and return."""  # <--- DOCSTRING (even without this comment)
    return 3*x**2 - 2*x**3

print("f({}) = {}".format(0.1,f(0.1)))

# Retrieve help about f(...), which includes the docstring.
help(f)

# Basic example

def clamp(x):
    """Clamp x between 0 and 1, i.e. if x is less than 0, return 0.
       If x is greater than 1, return 1.  Otherwise return x."""
    if x<0:
        return 0.0
    if x>1:
        return 1.0
    return x

for i in range(17):      # iterate over 0...16
    t = (i / 10) - 0.3   # so t ranges from -0.3 to 1.3, with steps of size 0.1
    print("clamp({:.2f}) = {:.2f}".format(t,clamp(t)))

# Functions can take multiple arguments, which are required if no default value is given
def clamp2(x,minval,maxval):
    """Clamp x between minval and maxval"""
    if x<minval:
        return minval
    if x>maxval:
        return maxval
    return x

for i in range(11):   # iterate over 0...10
    t = (i / 10)     # so t ranges from 0 to 1, with steps of size 0.1
    print("clamp2({:.2f},0.2,0.8) = {:.2f}".format(t,clamp2(t,0.2,0.8)))

# Default values can be specified, and if they are, the argument is optional.
def clamp3(x,minval=0.0,maxval=1.0):
    """Clamp x between minval (default 0) and maxval (default 1)"""
    if x<minval:
        return minval
    if x>maxval:
        return maxval
    return x

print("clamp3({:.2f}) = {:.2f}".format(t,clamp3(-0.2)))  # minval, maxval get default values
print("clamp3({:.2f},-1,1) = {:.2f}".format(t,clamp3(-0.2,-1,1)))  # minval, maxval specified

# When calling a function, you can specify arguments by name using name=value syntax
# These *keyword arguments* or *kwargs* can appear in any order, whereas arguments
# given as values alone must appear in the same order as the definition.

print(clamp3(minval=0.4,x=0.3))  # Using kwargs to choose the argument order

# kwargs are really useful for functions with many arguments, most of which have default
# values.  Often you want to call them and change just a few arguments from defaults.

# Functions don't need to return anything.  If the `return` keyword is not used,
# the function returns None

def hello():
    """Print a friendly greeting"""
    print("Hello there!")

hello() == None  # True, because no return means return None

#%%writefile polynomials.py
# Example module
# To actually use this, either:
#     1) Save the entire cell contents in a file "polynomials.py"
# or  2) Remove the # in front of the first line of this cell and run in a notebook
"""Some useful polynomials and other functions"""

USEFUL_CONST = 1234.0   # all caps is *not* required

def nozeros(x):
    """A quadratic polynomial with no real zeros"""
    return x**2 + 1

def smoothstep(x):
    """Smoothstep polynomial (clamped between 0 and 1)"""
    if x<0:
        return 0.0
    if x>1:
        return 1.0
    return 3*x**2 - 2*x**3

"""Example of using the polynomials module"""
# (Won't work unless you've saved the cell above to polynomials.py in the same directory where
#  you are running this code.)

import polynomials

print(polynomials.USEFUL_CONST)
print(polynomials.nozeros(0.2)) # should be 1.004
print(polynomials.smoothstep(0.45)) # should be 0.42525

# There are many useful modules in the Python standard library
# A few examples follow

import sys
print(sys.version) # Python version
print(sys.argv[0]) # Name of the currently running script

import time

print("Working...")
time.sleep(1.25) # Wait for 3.1 seconds
print("Done!")

print("It is now {} seconds since 0:00 on Jan 1 1970 GMT".format(time.time()))

import os

print("Files in the current directory:")
for fn in os.listdir("."):
    print(fn)

# Check for a file that exists (for the instructor developing this worksheet)
if os.path.exists("output.txt"):
    print("A file with name '{}' exists in the current directory.".format("output.txt"))

# Check for a file that does not exist
if os.path.exists("worksheet1soln.ipynb"):
    print("A file with name '{}' exists in the current directory.".format("worksheet1soln.ipynb"))

# Basic 2D point class
import math # for sqrt

class Point:
    """A point in the xy-plane"""  # DOCSTRING
    def __init__(self,x,y):
        """Initialize new point instance"""
        self.x = x
        self.y = y
    def translate(self,dx,dy):
        """Move the point by a vector (dx,dy)"""
        self.x += dx
        self.y += dy
    def distance_to(self,other):
        """Distance from this point to another one"""
        deltax = other.x - self.x
        deltay = other.y - self.y
        return math.sqrt(deltax**2 + deltay**2)

P = Point(3,4)  # Creates instance of Point, which calls __init__(...)
print("Distance from (3,4) to the origin: {:.2f}".format(P.distance_to(Point(0,0))))
print("Before moving: P.x={}, P.y={}".format(P.x,P.y))
print("Moving by (5,1)")
P.translate(5,1)  # Modifies P, returns nothing!
print("After moving:  P.x={}, P.y={}".format(P.x,P.y))

# Class help includes docstrings of the class itself and its methods
help(Point)